Adaptive Discretion in Child Marriage Prevention: Street-Level Bureaucracy in Indonesia’s Islamic Marriage Administration
DOI:
https://doi.org/10.24260/jil.v7i1.5265Keywords:
Adaptive Discretion, Child Marriage, Legal Pluralism, Marriage Administration, Office of Religious Affairs, Street-Level BureaucracyAbstract
The increase in the minimum age of marriage through Law No. 16 of 2019 represents a landmark reform in Islamic family law in Indonesia. However, the high number of marriage dispensation cases suggests that this statutory change has not automatically resulted in effective child protection. This article argues that preventing child marriage depends less on legislative reform and more on the discretionary practices of religious bureaucrats at the street level. Employing a socio-legal approach and a mixed-methods design, the study integrates a Knowledge, Attitudes, and Practices (KAP) survey, field observations, in-depth interviews, and focus group discussions conducted at four Offices of Religious Affairs (KUA) in the Special Region of Yogyakarta and Central Java. The findings reveal a pattern of normative ambivalence in defining maturity—between the legal age threshold and the fiqh (Islamic jurisprudence) concepts of ʿāqil (intellect) and bāligh (puberty)—reflecting a broader configuration of legal pluralism among state law, fiqh, and local norms. Nevertheless, most KUA officials demonstrate a substantive commitment to child protection through practices of adaptive discretion, normative mediation, and legal counseling in their roles as street-level bureaucrats. This article advances legal pluralism theory by demonstrating that normative negotiation occurs not only in society but also within state bureaucratic institutions, where Islamic family law is actively produced and operationalized as law in action. Ultimately, child protection in a plural legal order hinges on how institutional discretion is governed, embedded in, and negotiated through shifting configurations of authority among the state, religious actors, and local communities.
[Kenaikan batas usia minimum perkawinan melalui Undang-Undang No. 16 Tahun 2019 merupakan tonggak penting dalam reformasi hukum keluarga Islam di Indonesia. Namun, tingginya jumlah permohonan dispensasi kawin menunjukkan bahwa perubahan normatif tersebut belum secara otomatis bertransformasi menjadi perlindungan anak yang efektif. Artikel ini berargumentasi bahwa pencegahan perkawinan anak lebih ditentukan oleh praktik diskresi birokrasi keagamaan di tingkat garis depan dibandingkan oleh reformasi legislasi semata. Dengan menggunakan pendekatan sosio-legal dan desain metode campuran, penelitian ini mengintegrasikan survei Pengetahuan, Sikap, dan Praktik (KAP), observasi lapangan, wawancara mendalam, serta diskusi kelompok terfokus yang dilaksanakan di empat Kantor Urusan Agama (KUA) di Daerah Istimewa Yogyakarta dan Jawa Tengah. Temuan penelitian mengungkap pola ambivalensi normatif dalam memaknai kedewasaan—antara ambang batas usia legal dan konsep fikih tentang ʿāqil (kemampuan intelektual) dan bāligh (pubertas)—yang merefleksikan konfigurasi pluralisme hukum antara hukum negara, fikih, dan norma sosial lokal. Meskipun demikian, sebagian besar pejabat KUA menunjukkan komitmen substantif terhadap perlindungan anak melalui praktik diskresi adaptif, mediasi normatif, dan konseling hukum dalam perannya sebagai birokrat tingkat jalanan. Artikel ini memperluas teori pluralisme hukum dengan menunjukkan bahwa negosiasi normatif tidak hanya berlangsung di ranah sosial, tetapi juga di dalam institusi birokrasi negara, tempat hukum keluarga Islam secara aktif diproduksi dan dioperasionalkan sebagai hukum dalam praktik. Pada akhirnya, efektivitas perlindungan anak dalam tatanan hukum plural sangat bergantung pada bagaimana diskresi institusional diatur, ditanamkan, dan dinegosiasikan dalam konfigurasi otoritas yang terus berubah antara negara, aktor keagamaan, dan komunitas lokal.]
References
Abdul Rahim, Abdul Rahim, Darussalam Syamsuddin, Abd. Rauf Muhammad Amin, Achmad Musyahid, and Muhammad Safdar Bhatti. “Minimum Marriage Age in the Compilation of Islamic Law: A Progressive Ijtihad Based on Maslahah Fardiyyah and ‘A’iliyyah.” Jurnal Hukum Islam 23, no. 2 (December 2025): 381–410. https://doi.org/10.28918/jhi.v23i2.02.
Abdullah, A. H., W. M. Abdullah, A. K. Kazem Al-Bayati, B. S. Husain Al-Obaidi, and S. Khlaponina. “Effectiveness of Islamic Law in Protecting the Rights of the Child.” Al-Istinbath: Jurnal Hukum Islam 10, no. 1 (2025): 330–54. https://doi.org/10.29240/jhi.v10i1.12586.
Abdullah, Zaitun and Putri Ayu Maharani. “Unveiling the Enigma: Exploring Regulated Marriage Age Limits from the Lens of Maslahah Mursalah.” Nurani: Jurnal Kajian Syari’ah dan Masyarakat 24, no. 1 (June 2024): 119–38. https://doi.org/10.19109/nurani.v24i1.22370.
Admin. “PP ‘Aisyiyah Soroti Tingginya Angka Perkawinan Anak dan Pengasuhan Tak Layak.” Harian Jogja, November 14, 2024. https://jogjapolitan.harianjogja.com/read/2023/11/14/510/1155007/pp-aisyiyah-soroti-tingginya-angka-perkawinan-anak-dan-pengasuhan-tak-layak.
———. “Tercatat 71 Kasus Pernikahan Usia Anak di Yogyakarta, Dipicu Hamil Di Luar Nikah.” Kompas, December 18, 2023. https://yogyakarta.kompas.com/read/2023/06/18/205545878/tercatat-71-kasus-pernikahan-usia-anak-di-yogyakarta-dipicu-hamil-di-luar?page=all.
Afandi, Ahmad Najib, Ismatul Maula, Ahmad Rezy Meidina, Achmad Siddiq, and Mohammad Irsyad. “Protection of Children’s Rights to Sufficiency and Maintenance: A Normative Legal Analysis of Government Policy in Indonesia.” Usrotuna: Journal of Islamic Family Law 2, no. 2 (December 2025): 106–21.
Ahmad, Abd Kadir, Sabara, Sitti Arafah, Mustolehudin, Joko Tri Haryanto, and Nur Fadhilah Mappaselleng. “Lolo Bangko: Child Marriage & Family Resilience in Island Communities in South Sulawesi.” AHKAM: Jurnal Ilmu Syariah 25, no. 2 (December 2025): 285–300. https://doi.org/10.15408/ajis.v25i2.40543.
Ajiboye, Babatope Matthew. “Evicted from Home, Unaccommodated in the Street: The Castigatory Experience of Skolombo Boys and Lakasera Girls of Calabar in the Light of UNCRC.” Journal of Asian and African Studies 60, no. 7 (November 2025): 4505–20. https://doi.org/10.1177/00219096241257687.
Ali, M. “Child Sexual Abuse: Can the Doctrines of al-Maqasid al-Shariah and Maslahah Assist in Challenging the Honour Ideology?” International Journal of Human Rights 18, nos. 4–5 (2014): 508–26. https://doi.org/10.1080/13642987.2014.911478.
Al-Mabruri, M. Nasikhul Umam, Wahyu Fahrul Rizki, and Abdul Rahim Hakimi. “Children Born Out of Wedlock Inherit the Lineage of Their Biological Father: Auda’s Maqāşid Asy-Syarī’a Perspective.” Asy-Syir’ah: Jurnal Ilmu Syari’ah dan Hukum 55, no. 2 (December 2021): 415–38. https://doi.org/10.14421/ajish.v55i2.415.
Anggraeni, RR Dewi. “Islamic Law and Customary Law in Contemporary Legal Pluralism in Indonesia: Tension and Constraints.” AHKAM: Jurnal Ilmu Syariah 23, no. 1 (June 2023): 25–48. https://doi.org/10.15408/ajis.v23i1.32549.
Anwari, Ahmad Hirzan, Zaenul Mahmudi, and Moh Toriquddin. “Prevention of Child Marriage by the KUA of Kraksaan District through Partnership: A Perspective of Lawrence Meir Friedman’s Legal System Theory.” Borneo International Journal of Islamic Studies 6, no. 2 (November 2024): 1–22. https://doi.org/10.21093/bijis.v6i2.9181.
Arthur, Megan, Alison Earle, Amy Raub, Ilona Vincent, Efe Atabay, Isabel Latz, Gabriella Kranz, Arijit Nandi, and Jody Heymann. “Child Marriage Laws around the World: Minimum Marriage Age, Legal Exceptions, and Gender Disparities.” Journal of Women, Politics & Policy 39, no. 1 (January 2018): 51–74. https://doi.org/10.1080/1554477X.2017.1375786.
Asep Saepullah, Abdul Aziz, Ipuk Widayanti, M. Zidny Nafi’ Hasbi, and Adamu Abubakar Muhammad. “A Contemporary Socio-Legal Evaluation of Indonesia’s Post-Reformation Child Marriage Policies.” MILRev: Metro Islamic Law Review 4, no. 2 (December 2025): 1393–426. https://doi.org/10.32332/milrev.v4i2.10322.
Azni, Azni, Muhammad Hafis, Asril Amirul Zakariah, Adi Harmanto, Miftahuddin Miftahuddin, and M. Ihsan. “Pseudo-Maṣlaḥah and Epistemological Failure in Marriage Dispensation at Indonesian Religious Courts.” Jurnal Ilmiah Peuradeun 13, no. 2 (May 2025): 1399–420. https://doi.org/10.26811/peuradeun.v13i2.2047.
Berber, Sonia, and Samira Blanc. “Intimate Jurisprudence: Islamic Family Law Between Global Human Rights and French Republican Values.” Indonesian Journal of Islamic Law 7, no. 2 (December 2024): 64–82. https://doi.org/10.35719/2ke75t93.
Bowen, John R. On British Islam: Religion, Law, and Everyday Practice in Shari’a Councils. 1st ed. Princeton University Press, 2016. https://doi.org/10.23943/princeton/9780691158549.001.0001.
BS, Akmal Hakim, Muslim Zainuddin, Muhammad Iqbal, Muhammad Yusuf, and Erha Saufan Hadana. “Assessing Judges’ Considerations of Urgent Grounds in Marriage Dispensation Decisions: A Case Study of the Jantho Sharia Court, Aceh, Indonesia.” El-Usrah: Jurnal Hukum Keluarga 8, no. 2 (December 2025): 1000–1020. https://doi.org/10.22373/ujhk.v8i2.27101.
Bueren, Geraldine van. “The International Law on the Rights of the Child.” In The International Law on the Rights of the Child, 117–30. Boston: Brill Nijhoff, 2021. https://brill.com/display/title/9359.
Deb, S. “Introduction—Child Safety, Welfare, and Well-Being: Need of the Hour.” In Child Safety, Welfare and Well-Being: Issues and Challenges, Second Edition, 1–13. 2022. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-16-9820-0_1.
Dikuraisyin, Basar, Sumarkan, AH Fajruddin Fatwa, and Masadah. “Economic Underpinnings of Early Marriage: The Tengka Tradition among the Madurese.” Al-Ahwal: Jurnal Hukum Keluarga Islam 17, no. 1 (June 2024): 93–106. https://doi.org/10.14421/ahwal.2024.17106.
Dirlsnotbrides. “Child Marriage Atlas Indonesia.” Dirlsnotbrides, 2020. https://www.girlsnotbrides.org/learning-resources/child-marriage-atlas/atlas/indonesia/.
Duadji, Noverman, and Novita Tresiana. “Analysis of Child Marriage and Related Policies in Indonesia: Sustainable Development Issue.” Problemy Ekorozwoju 17, no. 1 (January 2022): 101–13. https://doi.org/10.35784/pe.2022.1.10.
El-Saha, Muhammad Ishom. “Penghulu and Marriage Problematics of Boundary Society in Entikong and Sekayam West Kalimantan.” AHKAM: Jurnal Ilmu Syariah 19, no. 2 (December 2019): 391–410. https://doi.org/10.15408/ajis.v19i2.13178.
Engle Merry, Sally. “Legal Pluralism.” Law & Society Review 22, no. 5 (1988): 869–96. https://doi.org/10.2307/3053638.
Evans, Tony. “Street-Level Bureaucrats: Discretion and Compliance in Policy Implementation.” In Oxford Research Encyclopedia of Politics, by Tony Evans. Oxford University Press, 2020. https://doi.org/10.1093/acrefore/9780190228637.013.1422.
Fatarib, Husnul, Suci Hayati, and Agus Salim Ferliadi. “Between Legalization and Moral Hazard: A Maslahah-Mafsadah Analysis of Prenuptial Pregnancy Marriage (Kawin Hamil) in Indonesian Islamic Law.” Al-Risalah: Forum Kajian Hukum dan Sosial Kemasyarakatan 25, no. 2 (December 2025): 89–104. https://doi.org/10.30631/alrisalah.v25i2.2016.
Fitriahadi, E., T. H. Nguyen, E. K. Suryaningsih, E. Wahyuntari, and Y. Satriyandari. “Strategies for Child Marriage Prevention in Indonesia: A Case Study.” Kemas 21, no. 1 (2025): 156–65. https://doi.org/10.15294/kemas.v20i3.13732.
Fitriyani, Fitriyani, Abd Basir, and Arman Budiman. “Building Family Resilience Among Early Marriage Practitioners in North Bogor, Indonesia.” El-Usrah: Jurnal Hukum Keluarga 8, no. 2 (December 2025): 835–52. https://doi.org/10.22373/ujhk.v8i2.26643.
Gariba, Samuel Logoniga, and Mette Rømer. “The Irony of Child Protection: A Qualitative Analysis of Social Workers and Police Officers’ Challenges in Supporting the Rights of Victims of Child Marriage.” Social Work and Social Sciences Review 25, no. 2 (2024): 63–84. https://doi.org/10.1921/swssr20242005.
Garland, Jameson, and Santa Slokenberga. “Protecting the Rights of Children with Intersex Conditions from Nonconsensual Gender-Conforming Medical Interventions: The View from Europe.” Medical Law Review 27, no. 3 (August 2019): 482–508. https://doi.org/10.1093/medlaw/fwy039.
Griffiths, John. “What Is Legal Pluralism?” The Journal of Legal Pluralism and Unofficial Law 18, no. 24 (January 1986): 1–55. https://doi.org/10.1080/07329113.1986.10756387.
Grijns, Mies, and Hoko Horii. “Child Marriage in a Village in West Java (Indonesia): Compromises between Legal Obligations and Religious Concerns.” Asian Journal of Law and Society 5, no. 2 (November 2018): 453–66. https://doi.org/10.1017/als.2018.9.
Hakim, Muhammad Lutfi, Sugianto Sugianto, Asyharul Muala, Khamim Khamim, and Habib Ismail. “Implementasi, Kendala dan Efektifitas Kursus Pranikah di KUA Kecamatan Pontianak Tenggara.” Al-Istinbath: Jurnal Hukum Islam 5, no. 2 (November 2020): 311–28. https://doi.org/10.29240/jhi.v5i2.1817.
Haye, Alemayehu Tekelemariam. “The Move Towards Inclusive Education in Ethiopia.” In The Wiley International Handbook of Educational Foundations, 1st ed., edited by Alan S. Canestrari and Bruce A. Marlowe, 123–40. Wiley, 2018. https://doi.org/10.1002/9781118931837.ch8.
HM, Muhajir, Hamzah Hasan, Supardin Supardin, Mursyid Fikri, and Laras Shesa. “The Role of Religious Affairs Office (KUA) of Makassar City in Preventing Marriage Violation under the Maṣlaḥah Mursalah Principle.” Al-’Adalah 21, no. 1 (June 2024): 125–48. https://doi.org/10.24042/adalah.v21i1.17017.
Hodgkin, Rachel, and Peter Newell. Implementation Handbook for the Convention on the Rights of the Child. UNICEF, 1998. https://books.google.co.id/books/about/Implementation_Handbook_for_the_Conventi.html?id=YQu3QgAACAAJ&redir_esc=y.
Horii, Hoko. “Legal Reasoning for Legitimation of Child Marriage in West Java: Accommodation of Local Norms at Islamic Courts and the Paradox of Child Protection.” Journal of Human Rights Practice 12, no. 3 (February 2021): 501–23. https://doi.org/10.1093/jhuman/huaa041.
Huzaimah, A., M. Abdillah, M. Tamudin, and I. P. Sari. “Controversy of Early Marriage Between Religious Doctrine and Customs in Minority Areas in Indonesia.” Jurnal Ilmiah Al-Syir’ah 22, no. 2 (2024): 139–51. https://doi.org/10.30984/jis.v22i2.2344.
Ibn Rushd. Bidāyat al-Mujtahid wa Nihāyat al-Muqtaṣid. vol. 2. Beirut: Dār al-Ma‘rifah, n.d.
Ibn Qudāmah. Al-Mughnī. vol. 4. Cairo: Maktabah al-Qāhirah, n.d.
Iman, Iman Fadhilah, Tedi Kholiludin, Muhammad Lutfi Hakim, and Ubbadul Adzkiya’. “Exploring the Monogamy Principle in the Samin Community’s Customary Marriages in Kudus: Harmonisation of Tradition and State Law.” Ijtihad: Jurnal Wacana Hukum Islam dan Kemanusiaan 23, no. 2 (January 2024): 281–304. https://doi.org/10.18326/ijtihad.v23i2.281-304.
Indra, Gandi Liyorba, M. Yasin Al Arif, and Abdul Qodir Zaelani. “The Ideal Age for Marriage in the Compilation of Islamic Law (KHI) and Psychology.” Al-’Adalah 20, no. 1 (June 2023): 1–18. https://doi.org/10.24042/adalah.v20i1.11598.
Ismail, Ismail, Busyro Busyro, Endri Yenti, Saiful Amin, and Hanif Aidhil Alwana. “Legal Age Equality in Marriage According to Indonesian Positive Law in the Studies of Gender and Maqāṣid Al-Sharia.” De Jure: Jurnal Hukum dan Syar’iah 15, no. 1 (July 2023): 67–81. https://doi.org/10.18860/j-fsh.v15i1.17696.
Jannah, Lulu Ul, Inna Fauziatal Ngazizah, and Abdurrohman Kasdi. “Social Legitimacy versus State Legal Certainty: The Dialectics of Kiai Marriages as Living Law in Dusun Pondok Asem, Kertasemaya, Indramayu.” Al-Mazaahib: Jurnal Perbandingan Hukum 13, no. 2 (December 2025): 173–98. https://doi.org/10.14421/al-mazaahib.v13i2.4392.
Jauhari, Iman, Zamakhsyari Bin Hasballah Thaib, M. Jafar, Tm Ali Bahar, M. Jamil, Muhammad Yusuf, and Zaini Dahlan. “The Qur’an and Islamic Legal Perspectives on Child Protection.” Pharos Journal of Theology 104, no. 4 (August 2023): 1–13. https://doi.org/10.46222/pharosjot.104.417.
Jayawardana, D. “Happily Ever After? Mental Health Effects of Early Marriage in Indonesia.” Feminist Economics 28, no. 4 (2022): 112–36. https://doi.org/10.1080/13545701.2022.2079698.
Jumarim, Ilyya Muhsin, and Muhammad Chairul Huda. “The Interplay of Fiqh, Adat, and State Marriage Law: Shaping Legal Consciousness of Sasak Women.” AL-IHKAM: Jurnal Hukum & Pranata Sosial 19, no. 1 (June 2024): 27–52. https://doi.org/10.19105/al-lhkam.v19i1.10522.
Kafidhoh, Siti, Nadzif Ali Asyari, Ali Mutakin Ali Mutakin, and Iqbal Saujan. “Dynamics of Legal Politics Regarding Marriage Age Limits in Indonesia: Between Religious Norms and Social Change.” Jurnal Hukum Islam 22, no. 2 (December 2024): 405–36. https://doi.org/10.28918/jhi.v22i2.06.
Kementerian Pemberdayaan Perempuan dan Perlindungan Anak. Statistik Dispensasi Pernikahan Anak 2021–2022. Jakarta: Kementerian Pemberdayaan Perempuan dan Perlindungan Anak, 2023. https://www.kemenpppa.go.id.
Kobulsky, Julia M., Howard Dubowitz, and Yanfeng Xu. “The Global Challenge of the Neglect of Children.” Child Abuse & Neglect 110 (December 2020): 104296. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.chiabu.2019.104296.
Kodir, Faqih Abdul, and Lies M. Marcoes-Natsir. Fikih Hak Anak: Menimbang Pandangan al-Qur’an, Hadis, dan Konvensi Internasional untuk Perbaikan Hak-Hak Anak. Jakarta: Yayasan Rumah Kita Bersama, 2022.
“Law No. 16 of 2019 on the Amendments to Marriage Law No. 1 of 1974.” October 15, 2019. http://peraturan.bpk.go.id/Details/122740/uu-no-16-tahun-2019.
Lipsky, Michael. Street-Level Bureaucracy: Dilemmas of the Individual in Public Services. New York: Russell Sage Foundation, 1980.
Luthfi, A. Hashfi, Nabhan Hamdani, Andri Ruhiat, Annilta Manzilah Adlimah, and Ahmad Solahuddin. “Examining the Impact of Early Marriage Hadith on Marriage Laws in Indonesia.” Asy-Syir’ah: Jurnal Ilmu Syari’ah dan Hukum 57, no. 1 (June 2023): 164–84. https://doi.org/10.14421/ajish.v57i1.1590.
Malek, Muhammad Al-Ghazalli Abdol, and Mohd Al Adib Samuri. “Child Marriage in Malaysia and the Proposed Legal Reform: Views of Muslim Stakeholders and Religious Officials.” El-Usrah: Jurnal Hukum Keluarga 8, no. 1 (June 2025): 313–43. https://doi.org/10.22373/f97qt681.
McBride, Jeremy. “The Violation of Economic, Social and Cultural Rights as Torture or Cruel, Inhuman or Degrading Treatment.” In Childhood Abused: Protecting Children Against Torture, Cruel, Inhuman and Degrading Treatment and Punishment. London: Routledge, 2019. https://doi.org/10.4324/9780429461675.
Merry, Sally Engle. Human Rights and Gender Violence: Translating International Law into Local Justice. Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 2006. https://press.uchicago.edu/ucp/books/book/chicago/H/bo3636543.html.
Mohd, Azizah, BadruddinHj Ibrahim, and Alhaji Umar Alkali. “An Overview of the Protection of Children Rights Under Islamic Law.” Advanced Science Letters 23, no. 4 (April 2017): 3251–54. https://doi.org/10.1166/asl.2017.7730.
Moosa, Ebrahim. “Children’s Rights in Modern Islamic and International Law: Changes in Muslim Moral Imaginaries.” In Adults, and Shared Responsibilities: Jewish, Christian and Muslim Perspectives. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2012.
Najib, Achmad, Sakirman, and Husnul Fatarib. “Resolving the Problems of Early Marriage in the Religious Courts: An Analysis of the Assessment of the Institute for the Protection of Women and Children.” Legitima: Jurnal Hukum Keluarga Islam 6, no. 2 (June 2024): 26–45. https://doi.org/10.33367/legitima.v6i2.5842.
Nemer, Mariucha Ramella Marcon, Bruna de Souza Nogueira, Fernanda do Nascimento de Lemos Campos, Márcia Cristina da Silva, Morgana Ducatti Alves, and Luiz Fernando Lolli. “Violation of Children’s and Adolescents’ Rights – the Profile of a Southern State in Brazil.” Acta Scientiarum. Health Sciences 42 (March 2020): e44453. https://doi.org/10.4025/actascihealthsci.v42i1.44453.
Nhassengo, Sérgio, Stela Ocuane Matsinhe, Eunice Jethá, Mathilde Sengoelge, Lucie Laflamme, and Asli Kulane. “Frontline Practitioners’ Perspective of the Implementation of Child Protection Laws and Prevention of Violence Against Children in Maputo, Mozambique.” Global Health Action 19, no. 1 (December 2026): 2609403. https://doi.org/10.1080/16549716.2025.2609403.
Nurlaelawati, Euis. Modernization, Tradition and Identity: The Kompilasi Hukum Islam and Legal Practices in the Indonesian Religious Courts. Amsterdam: Amsterdam University Press, 2010).
Nurmila, Nina, and Wiwin Windiana. “Understanding the Complexities of Child Marriage and Promoting Education to Prevent Child Marriage in Indramayu, West Java.” Ulumuna 27, no. 2 (December 2023): 823–53. https://doi.org/10.20414/ujis.v27i2.680.
Rembe, Symphorosa, and Kola Odeku. “Violation of Children’s Rights by Traditional and Cultural Practices and the Responses by States in Eastern and Southern Africa.” Journal of Psychology in Africa 19, no. 1 (January 2009): 63–69. https://doi.org/10.1080/14330237.2009.10820259.
Rifqi, Muhammad Jazil, Masdar Hilmy, Moh. Faizur Rohman, and M Imdadur Rohman. “Child Marriage in Villages: Misuse of Ijbār, Structural Discrimination, and Best Interest of the Child Dismissal.” AL-IHKAM: Jurnal Hukum & Pranata Sosial 20, no. 1 (July 2025): 168–95. https://doi.org/10.19105/al-lhkam.v20i1.15970.
Rohman, Taufiqur, Muhammad Mahsus, Muhammad Abduh, and Gioia Arnone. “Preventing Violations of Religious and Social Norms: Judicial Interpretation of ‘Urgent Reasons’ in Marriage Dispensation at the Wonosari Religious Court, Indonesia.” Journal of Islamic Law 4, no. 2 (August 2023): 218–36. https://doi.org/10.24260/jil.v4i2.1535.
Ropei, Ahmad, Miftachul Huda, Adudin Alijaya, Fakhry Fadhil, and Fitria Zulfa. “Managing Baligh in Four Muslim Countries: Egypt, Tunisia, Pakistan, and Indonesia on the Minimum Age for Marriage.” Al-Ahwal: Jurnal Hukum Keluarga Islam 16, no. 1 (June 2023): 112–40. https://doi.org/10.14421/ahwal.2023.16106.
Rosyadi, Imron, Muchlis Muchlis, Tajul Arifin, Ahmad Fathoni, and Fahadil Amin Al Hasan. “Gaps and Challenges in Child Marriage Regulation: An Indonesian and Australian Legal Perspective.” Justicia Islamica 22, no. 2 (November 2025): 381–410. https://doi.org/10.21154/justicia.v22i2.11780.
Sabbe, Alexia, Halima Oulami, Wahiba Zekraoui, Halima Hikmat, Marleen Temmerman, and Els Leye. “Determinants of Child and Forced Marriage in Morocco: Stakeholder Perspectives on Health, Policies and Human Rights.” BMC International Health and Human Rights 13, no. 1 (December 2013): 43. https://doi.org/10.1186/1472-698X-13-43.
Saeed, Abdullah. Islamic Thought: An Introduction. New York: Routledge, 2006.
Salenda, Kasjim. “Abuse of Islamic Law and Child Marriage in South-Sulawesi Indonesia.” Al-Jami’ah: Journal of Islamic Studies 54, no. 1 (June 2016): 95–121. https://doi.org/10.14421/ajis.2016.541.95-121.
Santoso, Dri, Zezen Zainul Ali, and Siti Wahyuni. “Avoiding Covert Polygamy at the Office of Religious Affairs: Authority and Family Law Reform in the Prohibition of Marriage During a Wife’s ‘Iddah Period.” Al-’Adalah 22, no. 2 (December 2025): 347–80. https://doi.org/10.24042/adalah.v222.27771.
Setiawan, H. H., Y. F. Wismayanti, N. R. Irmayani, and A. Wardianti. “Child Marriage in Indonesia: Exploring Social Culture and Gender Inequality.” In Social, Political, and Health Implications of Early Marriage, 93–114. IGI Global, 2024. https://doi.org/10.4018/979-8-3693-3394-5.ch004.
Shahrullah, Rina Shahriyani, Firdaus Firdaus, Elza Syarief, Aditya Rahmadhony, Ampuan Situmeang, Sri Lilestina Nasution, Nurlaily Nurlaily, Sari Kistiana, and Deden Gumilar Nugraha. “Dilemmas Faced by Judges When Granting Marriage Dispensations for Child Marriages in West Java, Indonesia.” International Journal of Law, Policy and The Family 37, no. 1 (January 2023): ebad035. https://doi.org/10.1093/lawfam/ebad035.
Siti Nurjanah, Ahmad Syarifudin, Muhammad Mujib Baidhowi, Elva Mahmudi, and Hidayat Darussalam. “Children’s Rights in Islamic Law: A Contemporary Study of Family Practices.” MILRev: Metro Islamic Law Review 4, no. 2 (July 2025): 933–53. https://doi.org/10.32332/milrev.v4i2.10077.
Soh, Roslina Che, and Nora Abdul Hak. “Application of Maslahah (Interest) in Deciding the Right of Hadanah (Custody) of a Child: The Practice in the Syariah Court of Malaysia.” Journal of Applied Sciences Research 7, no. 13 (2011): 2182–8.
Syahrudin Hidayat, Abdul Ghofur, and Ummul Baroroh. “The Norm of Marriage Age Limit and Cultural Contestation of Child Marriage Law in Rural Communities.” Jurnal Hukum Islam 21, no. 1 (June 2023): 55–82. https://doi.org/10.28918/jhi_v21i1_03.
Tahir, Nur Qadriyana, Ridwan Mochtar Thaha, Ridwan Amiruddin, Muhammad Rachmat, and Suriah Suriah. “Influence of Education and Parental Income of Parents on Early Marriage for Young Women the Village Baranti Districts Baranti Regency Sidenreng Rappang.” Open Access Macedonian Journal of Medical Sciences 8, no. T2 (January 2020): 127–30. https://doi.org/10.3889/oamjms.2020.5208.
Tummers, Lars, and Victor Bekkers. “Policy Implementation, Street-Level Bureaucracy, and the Importance of Discretion.” Public Management Review 16, no. 4 (May 2014): 527–47. https://doi.org/10.1080/14719037.2013.841978.
Turnip, Ibnu Radwan Siddik, Zainul Fuad, and Nurhayati Nurhayati. “The Current Development of Marriage Age Provisions in Indonesia and Malaysia: A Socio-Historical Approach.” Jurnal Ilmiah Al-Syir’ah 20, no. 1 (June 2022): 105–22. https://doi.org/10.30984/jis.v20i1.1813.
UNICEF. UNICEF Indonesia Annual Report 2024, An Overview of UNICEF’s Work in Indonesia. UNICEF, 2024. https://www.unicef.org/indonesia/reports/unicef-indonesia-annual-report-2024.
Widiyanto, Asfa, Siti Zumrotun, and Heru Saputra. “The Prevention of Underage Marriage in Indonesia: State, Religious Authority and Human Rights.” Justicia Islamica 21, no. 2 (October 2024): 401–22. https://doi.org/10.21154/justicia.v21i2.9771.
Zuḥaylī, Wahbah. Al-Fiqh al-Islāmī wa Adillatuh. vol. 4. Beirut: Dār al-Fikr, 1989.
Zuhriah, Erfaniah, Suud Fuadi, Imam Sukadi, and Zahrah Salsabillah Ashari. “Dimensions of the Islamic Law and Human Rights in the Protection of Children from Convicted Parents.” De Jure: Jurnal Hukum dan Syar’iah 16, no. 2 (December 2024): 432–55. https://doi.org/10.18860/j-fsh.v16i2.25150.
Downloads
Published
Issue
Section
License
Copyright (c) 2026 Noorhaidi Hasan, Moh. Mufid, Nina Mariani Noor, Halili Rais, Zezen Zainul Ali

This work is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial 4.0 International License.

